Learning Theories

Learning TheoriesThe thought of how we learn can be described in a battalion of different ways. Andrew Pollard describes larning â€Å"as the procedure by which cognition, constructs, accomplishments and attitudes are acquired, understood, applied and extended. Children besides discover their feeling towards themselves, towards each other and towards larning itself. Learning is therefore partially a cognitive, partially societal and affective.† Therefore a brooding professional must concentrate on these major concerns by concentrating on student public presentation within course of study based undertakings and in the long term developing each kid ‘s ability to come on as a successful scholar. Another of import facet for the instructor is the ability to decently understand the procedure of acquisition, as this should enable the professional to cognize best how to prosecute students in the acquisition experience. This thought of acquisition is non new and has been around since the beginning of world, be that the passing on cognition of fire devising to the acquisition of basic linguistic communication within early adult male. It is merely in more recent times that bookmans have attempted to make theories which describe this act that most people carry out without truly believing about. Some of these theories will be looked at in this piece, nevertheless it is of import to observe that the thought of one theory that fits all persons is in its ego a misnomer, as people and the universe they live in alteration faster than these theories can maintain up.Multiple intelligences: Howard GardnerThis theory of Multiple Intelligences was suggested in 1983 by the American psychologist Howard Gardener in his book Frames of the Mind. Gardner ‘s theory proposed that scholars have peculiar types of intelligences that can be classified, and each person has differing degrees of competency within each int elligence type or profile.Gardner identified 8 intelligences:Linguistic – the capacity to utilize words efficaciously Logical-mathematical – the capacity to utilize Numberss efficaciously Spatial – the ability to comprehend the visual-spatial universe accurately Bodily-kinaesthetic – expertness in utilizing one ‘s whole organic structure to show thoughts and feelings. Musical – the capacity to comprehend, discriminate, transform and express musical signifiers. Interpersonal – the ability to comprehend and do differentiations in the tempers, purposes and feelings of other people. Intrapersonal – self-knowledge and the ability to move on that cognition. Naturalistic – expertness in the acknowledgment and categorization of the legion species. ( Definitions from Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom – Thomas Armstrong ) Gardner ‘s theory proposed that the thought of I.Q. does non take into history the broad scope of abilities worlds display. In the multiple intelligences theory Gardner states that each intelligence profile can be improved to a high degree and suggests that learning should integrate all intelligences into the schoolroom so as to provide to a broad scope of abilities and intelligences. This will enable the scholar to larn in a manner that bests suits his or her single intelligence profile. Gardner highlights the importance of the instructor admiting that persons have different degrees of competency within certain intelligences, and suggests lessons should be planned to assist the scholar better in the intelligences in which they are weaker. This thought has been reinforced by research that proposes intelligence is developed though chance and the scholar ‘s experience ( Shayer and Addy, 2002 ) Some of the thoughts behind this theory of multiple intelligences have been criticized in the psychological science and educational theory communities ( White, 1998 ) , a common unfavorable judgment is that the theory is based on the theorist personal sentiment. Psychologist such as George Miller believe Gardner ‘s theory is based on his intuition and provinces that the theory lacks empirical informations. Gardner ‘s responds to his critics saying. â€Å" The testimonies and s are legion plenty from tonss of different topographic points to propose it ‘s deserving taking earnestly. † There is a batch of anecdotal grounds in support of MI, but no formal surveies. At the really least, many believe that MI theory virtues farther probe and large-scale research† . Other unfavorable judgments are based on instructors seting students into fixed intelligence profiles. This does non let the scholar to better in intelligences in which they are deemed to be less ab le, taking to a non-inclusive environment.Constructivism and Social Constructivism: Piaget VygotskyConstructivism theory suggests that people learn through an interaction between believing and experience, and through the consecutive development of more complex cognitive constructions ( Pollard 2002 ) . The most influential constructivist theoretician was Piaget. Jean Piaget ( 1896-1980 ) was a Swiss psychologist, philosopher and instructor. He taught at Grange-Aux-Belles school for male childs, he noticed when taging the students work that immature kids would systematically give the incorrect replies to certain inquiries. When he looked closer at these consequences he found that there was a form to the errors that immature kids made, that older kids did non. This led him to believe that there was an built-in difference in the manner younger people learn than that of grownups. Piaget proposed through a procedure of â€Å"accommodation and â€Å"assimilation† kids construct their ain world by agencies of experimenting on their ain environment. Piaget proposed that there are four cardinal developmental phases in which kids process their experience. 1 Sensorimotor – From birth to age 2 old ages. The baby builds an apprehension of himself or herself and world ( and how things work ) through interactions with the environment. It is able to distinguish between itself and other objects. Learning takes topographic point via assimilation ( the organisation of information and absorbing it into bing scheme ) and adjustment ( when an object can non be assimilated and the schemes have to be modified to include the object. 2 Pre-operational phase – From 2 to 7 old ages The kid is non yet able to gestate abstractly and needs concrete physical state of affairss. Objects are classified in simple ways, particularly by of import characteristics 3 Concrete operations phase – ( 7 to 12 old ages ) . As physical experience accumulates, adjustment is increased. The kid begins to believe abstractly and gestate, making logical constructions that explain his or her physical experiences. 4 Formal operations stage – ( 12 to 15 old ages ) Cognition reaches its concluding signifier. By this phase, the individual no longer requires concrete objects to do rational opinions. He or she is capable of deductive and conjectural logical thinking. His or her ability for abstract thought is really similar to an grownup. The effect of Piaget work has lead to the thought of a kid centred attack to instruction, this is particularly true in Primary school categories. It has promoted the usage of varied and stimulating schoolroom environments from which kids can deduce ambitious experiences. Some restrictions of Piagets work have been highlighted, one such unfavorable judgment is that due to the fact that the abilitiy of a kid to larn is structured into phases, it can take to the under appraisal of their capacities. Surveies have shown that kids ‘s capacities are much greater than those suggested by Piaget ( Tizard and Hughes ) Another unfavorable judgment of Piagets work is that as it can be hard to run into the demands of all persons in a category, the demand for a trim acquisition experience for each single category can take to a damaging state of affairs whereby the instructor spends so much clip pull offing the category room they are non able to pass adequate clip learning their students. Social Constructivism is a alteration of Piaget ‘s theory and was proposed by Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky. He believed that Piaget ‘s theory did non take into history a kid ‘s societal interactions which he believed besides had an consequence on cognitive development. Vygotsky ‘s theory proposed that. * interaction and civilization have a dramatic consequence on cognitive development. * Cognitive procedures ( linguistic communication, thought and concluding ) develop though societal interaction. * Learning is a shared societal activity embedded in schoolroom interactions. * The relationship between scholar and instructor is important. Within Vygotsky ‘s theory he introduces the thought of the zone of proximal development ( ZPD ) in larning this is stated as. â€Å" The distance between the existent development degree as determined by independent job resolution and the degree of possible development as determined through job work outing under grownup counsel or in coaction with more capable equals † ( Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86 ) . This helping the scholar by a more capable other has been termed â€Å"scaffolding† . Scaffolding is a procedure whereby the scholar is provided with construction and support which allows them to understand undertaking they could non make entirely. As the scholar develops an apprehension of the undertaking the staging can be removed this consequences in â€Å"more sophisticated cognitive systems†¦ the system of cognition itself becomes portion of the scaffold or societal support for the new learning† ( Raymond, 2000, p. 176 ) . Curriculum for Excellence lends to a great extent from these thoughts with its AifL and inclusion enterprises. AifL formative appraisal constabularies should convey more balance to the place of more knowing other as it aims to hold category equals every bit good as the instructor make fulling this function. The active function of the scholar in this theory should let for a better apprehension of what is being taught and why ensuing in an improved acquisition environment.Theories used in the schoolroomMultiple IntelligencesDuring my clip on SE1A I tried to suit a figure of different intelligences into my lesson. During planning of any lesson I would implement different manners of acquisition, this was non ever possible due to resource and clip restraints, nevertheless in the cases where it was possible I noticed positive consequences. Whilst taking a S1 category covering human organic structure systems, I was able to utilize a choice of larning stuffs. I made certain that all students were exposed to all larning types, the purpose of the lesson was to let all students to make the success standards utilizing three different larning manners. The manners I adopted were the usage of a picture ( Visual ) theoretical accounts of the human organic structure ( kinesthetic ) and group treatment ( Linguistic-Intrapersonal ) . I found this to be a successful lesson as during plenary students were able to joint which larning manner they found most good and which they found least. With this in head I will go on to use the multiple intelligences theory when be aftering my lessons and will seek to suit as many larning intelligences as possible.Social constructivismI implemented societal constructivist theory when puting a undertaking to a S1 category I was learning, the category was split into groups A, B, C, D, E each group was given the undertaking of happening out about a particular cell type/s, during this clip I moved around the category staging. Once the group collected all the information that was required, the groups were rearranged so each member of the group had looked at a different cell. The purpose of the lesson was for each member of the group to learn the remainder of the group what they had found out. Each group successfully completed the acquisition and success standards. The whole category were engaged and there was a high grade of larning taking topographic point, holding seen this theory in pattern I will be go oning to utilize and better it in my pattern.Appraisal schemesIn recent old ages appraisal has become the primary focal point in instruction. This has occurred for two grounds ( Pollard 2008 ) . The first and most important has been the demand for authoritiess to hold a manner of mensurating educational end product. This was seen as a manner for parents to be able to compare between different schools trial consequences, and hence be able to do an informed pick as to what school to direct their kids to. The hope was that the publication of conference tabular arraies would promote all schools to raise criterions and invariably better on consequences to raise their place in the school evaluations tabular arraies. The 2nd ground for the increased involvement in appraisal came from the realization of the value of continual appraisal in informing instruction and bettering acquisition ( Black and William 1998 ) . Their research highlighted that appraisal can be used as a tool to find non merely what has been learned i.e . terminal of subject trials and tests, but appraisal can besides be used as a tool for acquisition.Appraisal is for Learning ( AifL )Appraisal is for larning ( AifL ) is an effort to seek and hold more balance in the Scots course of study, the over accent of summational appraisals schemes, such as terminal of subject trials and tests, does non needfully give a good indicant to the degree of larning that takes topographic point in the category room. Alternatively the usage of formative appraisal schemes should be at the nucleus of effectual instruction pattern. The work of Black and William in 1998 established that there was strong grounds that formative appraisal can raise criterions of student ‘s accomplishment. Appraisal can be said to be formative when the consequences from the instructors and pupils measuring themselves generate an adaptation to the learning methods later employed to run into the demands of the students. ( Inside the Black Box ) . It is this thought of co ntinual student instructor interactions taking to version of learning to run into the demands of single students that lies at the bosom of effectual instruction.The AifL model incorporates three different facets of appraisal:* appraisal FOR larning * appraisal OF larning * appraisal AS acquisition,Appraisal For larningThe intent of appraisal for acquisition is to â€Å"focus on the spread between where a scholar is in their acquisition, and where they need to be- the coveted goal† ( LTScotland ) . This end can be attained by a assortment of agencies such as feedback to pupils, guaranting the students are cognizant of the acquisition purposes and effectual inquiring among others. Black and William have defined appraisal for larning as â€Å"all those activities undertaken by instructors and/or by their pupils, which provide information to be used as feedback to modify the instruction and acquisition activities in which they are engaged†Key characteristicsThe cardinal characteristics as stated by LTS web site are as follows Focus on high quality interactions – Successful appraisal in the schoolroom should affect high quality interactions based on thoughtful inquiries, careful hearing and effectual responses. This should affect giving students equal â€Å"wait time† before seeking to reply inquiries as suggested by Mary Budd Rowe ( â€Å"Wait Time and Rewards as Instructional Variables, Their Influence on Language, Logic, and Fate Control, † Journal of Researching Science Teaching, vol. 11, 1974, pp. 81-94 ) . This could besides be the usage of a no custodies policy when replying inquiries Involving students in their acquisition – Focus on the extent your students and staff are to the full involved in make up one's minding following stairss in their acquisition and identifying who can assist. This should affect the scholars holding a active function in what they are being taught were possible, and giving the scholar pick in the ways which they learn as stated by Gardner ‘s theory of multiple intelligences Feedback – Students and staff are given timely feedback about the quality of their work and how to do it better. This thought of positive support sing students work it portion of Skinner ‘s behaviorist theory. The importance of both verbal and written feedback allows the scholar to cognize if there are any spreads in their cognition, but besides lets them cognize what countries they perform good in. Sharing standards – â€Å"Pupils, staff and parents are clear about what is to be learned and what success would be like† It is of import that students are made cognizant of the undertaking they are transporting out and what is to be learned by sharing larning purposes, in add-on it is besides of import that they are cognizant of what the success standards are for said undertaking. This pattern of sharing larning purposes and success standards is a critical portion of the appraisal for larning scheme and is similar to Vygotsky ‘s Zone of Proximal Development.Appraisal in the schoolroomDuring my clip on SE1A I implemented a figure of different formative appraisal techniques, I ever shared the learning purposes with the category, they would be written on the white board leting me to transport out the lesson on the smart board. This would let the students to hold a mention point which they could easy see throughout the lesson, helped the students to set the lesson into context. In my first lessons I did non portion the success standard with the students and would alternatively travel over them in the plenary, nevertheless holding spoken to co-workers I was advised that it would be good to portion the success standard with the students this was reinforced when I went back to the literature which resulted in me watching instructors Television picture ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.teachers.tv/video/3311 ) . The sharing of acquisition and success standards did better the categories apprehension of a peculiar subject as they had a clear thought of what was expected of them. With both my S1 and S2 I implemented a no-hands up policy, I would get down by inquiring the students a inquiry I would so give them at least a minute to believe of an reply, so I would inquire an person for an reply. This took a spot of clip for the students to acquire used to as certain students were acquiring frustrated by the delay clip as they knew the reply. I think overall this scheme worked good for most kids as it gave the whole category clip to believe and as they did non cognize who would be asked the inquiry it led to a high degree of battle. In a S2 category I was responsible for a alteration lesson for an terminal of topic trial. I implemented a quiz that was to be created by the category, this involved dividing the category into groups and acquiring them to come up with inquiries refering to the subject. This worked good as there was a high degree of competition for the place of top squad. Once I had made certain the students knew the nature of the inquiries they could inquire they were left to come up with inquiries themselves. This really challenged the students as they wanted to come up with ambitious inquiries for their equals, which lead to some high degree acquisition and a high degree of battle. Other schemes I have used include the usage of a traffic visible radiation system whereby students who showed a green visible radiation for understanding a peculiar subject paired up with students who showed ruddy visible radiation. The green visible radiation students would so assist explicate facets of the subject. I will be implementing other assessment schemes in my go oning pattern, such as issue inquiries, demo me boards and head maps, while invariably bettering my oppugning accomplishments.A Curriculum For ExcellenceThe Curriculum for Excellence ( CfE ) is the new Scottish course of study to be taught in all public Scottish schools by August 2010. CfE came approximately due to the â€Å"National Argument on Education† this argument was launched by the Scots Executive in 2002, the purpose of the argument was to construct on the high quality instruction that was being provided to many of the immature people in Scotland but besides to guarantee that â€Å"all immature people were being offered a welcoming and stimulating environment for the 21st century.† ( Scots Executive, 2002 ) . The consequence of this argument was that although there were many positive facets of the current course of study there was a demand for alteration. In November 2004 the proposal for CfE was approved and published, it was implemented to broaden the acquisition experiences of immature people and to do these experiences more gratifying and relevant to a quickly altering environment. CfE has been designed to develop four chief capacities in all immature people between the ages of 3 and 18, these capacities being successful scholars, confident persons, responsible citizens and effectual subscribers. To accomplish this end CfE has 7 rules of course of study design that have been devised to guarantee the four capacities are met. 1. Challenge and enjoyment – Young people should happen their acquisition challenging, prosecuting and actuating. The lessons planned by instructors should reflect this rule by promoting high aspirations and aspirations for all students. 2. Breadth – All immature people should be educated in a wide scope of results and experiences across all course of study countries. The acquisition may be linked to vocational or other specialised contexts and will take topographic point both in the category room and other cross-curricular activities. 3. Progression – The learning experience will take topographic point between the ages of 3 – 18 and will demo a continual patterned advance within a individual curricular model. The rate of patterned advance should be tailored to the person so that it meets their demands and aptitudes, and leaves options open so that no picks within the course of study are closed prematurely. 4. Depth – The scholar should hold chances to derive a deeper apprehension for different types of thought and acquisition. As they progress through the old ages they should be able to make their full capacity by developing cognitive accomplishments, while besides deriving a better apprehension of their moral values and beliefs. 5. Personalisation and Choice – the course of study should suit every single scholars demands and back up their aptitudes and endowments. The scholar should hold an active function in how and what they learn. 6. Coherence – The course of study should be a consistent larning experience from 3-18 and there should be clear links between different facets of their acquisition. This should include lessons which can pull from different strands of larning which cross over traditional capable boundaries 7. Relevance – The leering experienced by immature people should be relevant to them. They should understand why they are larning and it relevancy to their lives both inside and outside the category room. The Curriculum for excellence purposes to give all immature people the accomplishments and cognition they need to win in the modern twenty-four hours universe. If all schools can win at developing the four capacities in all persons so it should give their students an ideal start in life and should do for a shining illustration of what can be achieved.CfE in the category roomAs the CfE results and experiences have non yet been implemented in the school I was at on SE1 I was non able to be after lessons around them. The school I was placed at was still learning the 5-14 National Guidelines, nevertheless this did non halt me from looking at the similarities in each set of results. Looking at the results it became clear that there was an convergence in both sets of results which allowed me to learn lessons which would cover both 5 to 14 and CfE outcomes. During my observations at school it became clear that in many instances the seven rules within CfE were being adhered to, this allowed me to larn from my equals how best to implement them into my categories.Challenge and EnjoymentDuring my observation clip on arrangement I was able to see precisely what was working good within certain categories, although at this point I had a batch of thoughts on how best to set together my lessons acquiring a pupils oculus position on the lesson truly helped me to take activities that would work best. I was responsible for a category of S1 students on SE1, through a series of lessons I implemented a scope of different activities to maintain the category stimulated and motivated. During the lessons the students were involved in card kinds, cut and paste activities, single paired and full category probes, smart board activities, pictures, modeling, postings doing and PowerPoint presentations. Appendix? Shows a posting made by a group of my students, the lesson involved making research for the subject in the ICT suite followed by a presentation to the remainder of the category utilizing postings or PowerPoint. All the students were actively involved in the exercising and students had the pick of how they wished to show their information. I besides left it up to the students to depute certain undertakings to each member of the squad. These activities allowed the scholars to hold an active function in their acquisition and take which method of larning they thought worked best for them. During the plenary session at the terminal of the lesson we would discourse if they had met the success standards and in some instances if their chosen type of larning manner was really effectual.RelevanceWhen be aftering my lesson I ever thought of ways to convey in existent life illustrations to the subjects I was learning. When I was covering the electrochemical series with a S3 category I was able to demo why we use different metals in bring forthing batteries, this lead to me explicating the chemical science of nomadic phone batteries and ways to widen their life. During a lesson on the respiratory system to a S1 category I was able to demo the consequence that smoke has on the lungs, and highlighted the importance of a healthy diet in digestion. During the forces topic we investigated the varying degrees of clash of different stuffs on ice, the students were so able to propose the best types of footwear to either cut down or increase clash if they were out walking on an icy w inter ‘s twenty-four hours.Literacy and numeracyLiteracyWithin CfE literacy had been highlighted as a nucleus accomplishment which is to be embedded throughout the course of study regardless of the topic. Literacy is defined as â€Å"the set of accomplishments which allows an person to prosecute to the full in society and in acquisition, through the different signifiers of linguistic communication, and the scope of texts, which society values and discoveries useful.† ( LTS ) Bettering literacy accomplishments is of critical importance as it enables immature people to â€Å"develop accomplishments for acquisition, accomplishments for life and accomplishments for work, † ( www.ltscotland.org.uk/curriculumforexcellence/buildingthecurriculum/entitlements/skills/index.asp ) Literacy skills enable immature people to better understand and interact with their topics in the course of study, non merely this but these accomplishments are movable to the out of school environment, be that the work topographic point or in mundane life. If a student has problem with literacy accomplishments this can take to a deficiency of patterned advance in a peculiar topic, the feeling that the instructor may hold is that the student is non engagement in the topic. However the root of the job is that the students have hapless reading authorship or listening accomplishments. The results for literacy are: Reading, Writing, Listening and Talking CfE demands that all practicians engage with bettering degrees of literacy, as the betterment in literacy will ensue in an increased apprehension of all topics within the school course of study. By guaranting that all practicians take duty for literacy within schools the student will hold the chance to develop their accomplishments for acquisition, accomplishments for life and accomplishments for the work topographic point.NumeracyAs with Literacy, numeracy is besides a nucleus accomplishment within CfE â€Å"All instructors have duty for advancing the development of numeracy. With an increased accent upon numeracy for all immature people, instructors will necessitate to be after to revisit and consolidate numeracy accomplishments throughout schooling.† ( Constructing the Curriculum I ) Numeracy has been highlighted as a nucleus accomplishment, as like literacy competent numeracy accomplishments are indispensable in mundane life, and as such to be able to lend efficaciously to society immature people should hold a good foundation in these accomplishments. Strong numeracy accomplishments provide immature people with better apprehension of the universe around them and are a footing for womb-to-tomb acquisition. The edifice of strong numeracy accomplishments throughout the course of study should give immature people â€Å"the assurance and competency in utilizing figure which will let persons to work out jobs, analyse information and do informed determinations based on calculations.† CfE bookletDrumheadIt has been shown that strong accomplishments in both literacy and numeracy benefits both the person and the state as a whole. The importance of these accomplishments is highlighted in the ALNIS study which states â€Å"Literacy and numeracy accomplishments are c ritical for grownups to accomplish the ends they set themselves at work, at place, in the community and as scholars. The personal effects of low literacy and numeracy accomplishments can be serious. The national effects for a modern, multicultural, competitory Scotland, and attempts to accomplish societal justness, are far reaching.† ( ALNIS, p 12 )Literacy in the schoolroomDuring placement SE1A, I paid peculiar attending to the literacy results defined by CfE. When lesson planning I integrated literacy results into all my categories be these reading composing speaking or hearing. In one category I used a picture to summarize chief points that had been taught throughout the subject. I asked to take down note sum uping the chief points of the subject, this would let me to estimate whether they had understood the chief learning purpose of the subject. I made certain to halt the picture at cardinal points to let the kids with slower cognitive or composing accomplishments clip to believe and compose. This exercising planned to better the kids ‘s hearing and note taking abilities as this is a of import accomplishment needed in the school and work environment. The kids were so asked to describe back what notes they had taken and why within groups. This exercising was besides developed to better at that place speaking accomplishments as they each had to separately describe back the notes they had taken. I found this exercising priceless as I rapidly realised that there was a broad scope of abilities within the category, as a whole the category found this undert aking hard. There were a figure of facets of the undertaking the kids found hard which arose during the plenary treatment, many of which arose from holding to watch the picture and compose down short concise notes. This undertaking showed me the true extend of the importance of distinction required in lessons, it besides highlighted that note pickings is a accomplishment that may non hold been taught in any deepness within the course of study. In future I will do certain that before transporting out an exercising like this that a important sum of clip is spent learning the accomplishment as I think it will profit students in the short and long term. The creative activity of a lab write up within a category is an first-class manner to better composing accomplishments. Every practical carried out by my categories is accompanied with an experimental write up. The usage of experimental write ups gives kids exposure to an unfamiliar manner of composing. I ever promote my students to compose up studies in a scientific mode with an purpose, hypothesis, consequences and decision. Before the write up I would inquire for suggestion as to how the study should be worded, followed by an illustration provided by myself. This got the kids thin inking about the construction and registry of the piece. In some instances I would inquire an person or group to show their findings to the category. In one category I split the category into four groups and asked each group to compose up the purpose, method and manner to enter consequences for the four different experiments. Once completed the group ‘s swapped studies and tried to transport out experiment utilizing the study they received. I will be go oning to utilize lab study composing as I think it does cover a broad scope of results for literacy, and when carried out good does prosecute students. In a S2 scientific discipline category I took, the students were required to retrieve a peculiar series of reactive metals. To do this easier to retrieve I encouraged the category to come up with acronym to assist them retrieve the series. Before we started I gave them a few illustrations of common acronyms they had likely used such l.o.l and o.m.g. this started a het argument as to the best acronym to utilize for the reactive metals. Each member of the category came up with their ain acronym some more suited than others, nevertheless all students did prosecute and there was a spot of temper in the lesson which is of import when learning some of the more proficient facets of scientific discipline. This undertaking got the kids activity believing about the right pick of words and the usage of their vocabulary, I would state the undertaking worked good and I will be utilizing the technique once more when seeking to assist the kids remember complex scientific sequences.

Racism in “To kill a mockingbird” Essay

â€Å"If there’s just one kind of folks, why can’t they get along with each other? If they’re all alike, why do they go out of their way to despise each other?† (Lee, 259) Harper Lee uses her novel ‘To Kill a Mockingbird’ to accentuate the catastrophic nature of racism. Some troubling individuals or groups of people have felt powerful by exercising their dominance over another group claiming they are worthier, stronger, and smarter. The problem of racism has often been associated with the history of the United States of America. Slavery has been abandoned long ago, but for years black people were considered to be of lower class, their capabilities were denied, and their dignity was completely diminished. It took American people hundreds of years to achieve the level of true democracy, when they can grasp the notion of equality between people, including acceptance of differences in gender, nationality, religion, culture, and what most matters in the book we read – race. Discrimination can be shown through the Maycomb community, the Tom Robinson trial, and Boo Radley. As Scout’s cousin told her, â€Å"He’s nothing but a n*****-lover!† (Lee, 94). Segregation could be noticed not only in the Maycomb County, but in the whole Alabama state, and the rest of Southern USA. Black people could not ‘mingle’ with the whites and their children attended separate schools. Adults socialized at places where they wouldn’t be noticed or bother the whites (ex. the black church in Maycomb). They each had their own territories, and assumed it was immoral for them to fuse together. They would go out of their way, saying things such as â€Å"You ain’t got no business bringin’ with chillum here – they got their church, we got our’n† (Lee, 136). The whites and blacks knew very little of each other, and that fear of not knowing became worse by imagining how bad the other side must be. This was also one of the problems that prevented racism to disappear. ‘The Great Depression’ during the 1930s made people (whites) stay focused on their own poverty, made them angry, and stopped them from seeing poverty and hardships on the other side. All these factors made polarization stronger, and created grounds for racism  to grow. The problem of racism and segregation was presented through subtle descriptions of the suburban life of very young and innocent children. Their view of events and relationships in the book was a strong contrast to the negative characters of white racists who wanted to take justice in their hands and execute Tom Robinson. In a child’s perspective, displayed through narration by the author (Scout), portrayed an innocent assumption that all people are the same, and poverty and racism are deeply unfair and brutal things. Seeing events through the eyes of a child (ex. Scout) helps us understand that feeling of hatred and discrimination is not something we are born with, but is often taught by adults. In Maycomb, most people are influenced and taught by their parents and peers that there are certain people in society that do not fit in with other people. Jem and Scout deeply argued the cruel idea. â€Å"I think there’s just one kind of folks. Folks.† (Lee, 258). Black people are an obvious example, but it’s also people based on their wealth and lifestyle. Scout is restricted from playing with her fellow school-mate Walter Cunningham, her Aunt Alexandra replies; â€Å"Because – he – is – trash, that’s why you can’t play with him† (Lee 257). Her aunt is one of those people in Maycomb who is always injustice. Chapters that describe situation before and after the court trial against Tom Robinson are full of examples of how racism was demonstrated ‘routinely’. Atticus Finch faced huge pressure only because he agreed to defend a black man, which proved that someone could lose their reputation for getting too close with the blacks. Scout got into fights trying to defend her father’s pride, when the kids at her school called him a ‘n***** lover’. â€Å"He had announced in the school-yard the day before that Scout Finch’s daddy defended n*****s.†(Lee, 85). She strongly disagreed with the kids’ terrible judgement on black people, and loathed the sight of it. She would get out of her way to stop the unhuman behaviour, and to defend her innocent and brave father. Love relationships between whites and blacks was strictly forbidden, which was clearly shown in Mayella’s example, who had such a powerful guilt for becoming fond of Tom, that she did not hesitate to lie and attempt to destroy Tom’s dignity and whole life. Tom Robinson recalled while testifying; â€Å"She reached up an’ kissed me ‘side of th’ face. she says she never kissed a grown man before an’ she might as well kiss a n*****† (Lee, 219). Atticus’s speech during the trial was so powerful and would normally touch everyone’s heart and make people start thinking otherwise, but did little to change the outcome. The example of Tom Robinson’s case in the book proves how blacks had no chance to win any case. The whites had all rights to bring accusations against the blacks, and bring them to the court. Mayella’s defender even assumed that he had the right to disrespect Tom by calling him â€Å"boy† (Lee, 223). The trial itself would not do them any favour as the decisions were often made despite clear evidence. Who could expect a different outcome, especially when the jury was made of whites, who were often open racists. One more detail from the book that also spoke about discrimination is when, towards the end, in a mysterious way Jem was attacked, lost consciousness and was brought home by Boo Radley. The Sheriff felt obliged to come up with a cover-up story, so poor Boo would not become the centre of attention. He made up a story that Bob Ewell fell on his own knife and died, and there was no connection to poor Boo Radley. â€Å"I may not be much, Mr. Finch, but I’m still sheriff of Maycomb County and Bob Ewell fell on his knife.† (Lee, 317). The fact that problem was resolved this way also tells us about double standards used for the blacks and whites. If there had been a black man suspected of murder, there would have been no way for him to escape the trial. However, the dignity of a white man had to be protected at any cost. In a way, it is a fair deal, especially after what we have learned about strong prejudice towards mentally and physically challenged people like Boo Radley, which caused him enough misery and suffering. Two main characters in the book carried a hope for the generation that is to come, that things will change. â€Å"Why reasonable people go stark raving mad when anything involving a Negro comes up, is something I don’t pretend to understand† (Lee, 100). Both of them (Scout and Jem) were inspired by their  father Atticus, who believed that racism is a disease from which his kids should be saved. Education is one of the key factors that enlightens people, gives exposure to different views, and teaches the wide American population that they have so much in common. Wasting time segregating people of all kinds prevents countries and nations from making huge advancements. â€Å"Why don’t they like the Jews, you reckon, Miss Gates?† (Lee, 281). That is one of the messages Harper Lee wanted to pass on in an indirect way. Fortunately, societies changed for better; more and more people got educated, they learned about tolerance and equality. Atticus’ thoughts truly stand out in this novel. â€Å"You never really know a man until you stand in his shoes and walk around in them† (Lee, 321). The people of Maycomb had horrendous and evil assumptions about black people, and how they do not belong with society. Although they specially thought about them through an outside perspective, they rarely thought about them through an inside perspective. They never knew that they were just innocent people trying to have a good life in America. Through apprehensible context, the novel truly brings out the ugly nature of people, and their gruesome delight of disrespecting and discriminating people of disparity – especially black people. â€Å"I knowed who it was, all right, lived down yonder in that n*****-nest, passed the house every day. Jedge, I’ve asked this county for fifteen years to clean out that nest down yonder, they’re dangerous to live around ‘side devaluin’ my property-† (Lee, 199). Ignorance can cost people their lives, ruin their families, and bring separations to those who should be united. Harper Lee’s book described all these problems in such a powerful and touching way that many generations of readers will remember its messages.

Essay On Green Essay

If we judge the colour green from the colour psychology perspective, we learn that green balances the heart and emotions and thus create the equilibrium in heart and brain. From the meaning of colour perspective, green is the symbol of growth, colour of spring and symbolizes renewal and rebirth. It is the sanctuary away from the complexity and stresses of the modern lives and the tranquility of the calm, fresh and greener area. I have my wall painted in green colour and it is generally believed that green is an eye friendly colour unlike red. The mild green colour is a popular colour which does not look too violent or too dull. I liked this colour even in my childhood and that I can be sure from the dominant green usages in my childhood paints. My teachers sometimes laughed at my weakness on green colour when I painted a green sun and green moon. I still remember I pained a green alien and that painting became very famous among our friends. I am not quite sure how my fascination started growing on green colour but I guess I started liking this colour as I had spent my childhood in an area where green was the most dominating colour. This was the colour of nature and I was surrounded by the beauty of nature. I noticed in my childhood that green is the colour for living and yellow and red means dying, specifically for the trees and plants I had. May be this idea influenced my preference of colour. May be this choice is not directly related to any of my experience and reflected in a later stage as part of my individuality and personal preference. Whatever is the reason, I guess Green is a colour of profound importance and is my favourite colour.

Contemporary Women in Visual Art Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Contemporary Women in Visual Art - Essay Example However, there is increasing war for fair representation of women in visual art. In the article â€Å"China’s Female Artists Quietly Emerge† by Cotter, this issue is deeply discussed. This paper presents a critical analysis of this article by evaluating its approach, relevant insights, authenticity, viewpoints, and authoritativeness among others. The place of women has been greatly contested in the recent times. As the article presents it, women in China have had no any chance in Chinese visual art for a long time despite their profound talents in different fields of visual arts. Having reached a breaking point, they are presenting their anger by openly defying social norms that enclose men into the world of arts. Cotter uses a rich mix of literature techniques to present her point of view. The article begins with a very interesting and captivating introduction that directly catches the mind of the reader. From the word go, the issue discussed within the article is intr oduced. Xiao Lu demonstrates her anger and protest in a national art gallery by shooting at a mirrored sculpture. It is actually ironical that this was the first Chinese government sponsored exhibition and did not address the role of women in visual art. What she had done was a symbolic explosion that expressed protest among the international art enthusiasts and critics. Indeed Li Xianting, an art critic, criticized the incident as a precursor to the infamous Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. The big issue presented by the article is the position given to women in contemporary art particularly in china. Women, however talented, are rarely given a chance to display their artistic talent, especially in visual arts. Men always take the first preference. Artwork done by women is a rare commodity to find even in large and modernized social settings such as Beijing. Although the article does not have a reference list, most of the information can be traced back to the original source. For instance, the event on the article correlates with later happenings as claimed in the article. A follow up on Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 shows that Xiao Lu protest event at the national gallery could indeed have been a precursor of the Tiananmen Square protests. Further investigation proves that Li Xianting is indeed claimed to be a Godfather of Chinese contemporary avant-garde art. Yin Xuizhen is indeed a contemporary art enthusiast as claimed in the article. These plus other examples prove that though the article does not have a reference list, the information contained therein is authentic and trustworthy. However, the failure to include references in the article has given the author a great deal of flexibility in expressing the main ideas. The main idea is developed from a neutral point without much influence from works of other authors. It can be claimed that the article is written in an idealistic point of view. The article takes on a woman character and develops her c ontribution to the agenda of contemporary visual artwork. The contributions of contemporary visual artists, such as Ms. Xiao, Lin Tianmiao, Yin Xuizhen, and Lu Qing, have been well elaborated, and this expresses the viewpoint clearly. The article presents the issue of contemporary artists in a time in history when gender equality and affirmative actions have received heightened attention. Interestingly, Beijing happens to be a global symbol regarding representation of women issues. The fourth world conference on women took

Do the Financial Institutions Affect the Economic Growth of A Region Essay

Do the Financial Institutions Affect the Economic Growth of A Region of Not - Essay Example This theory was the base of Lucas's neutrality-of-money paper. The neoclassical tradition emphasizes that the demand for a product in the market and the quantity supplied determine the employment and labour cost. Milton Friedman had also constructed mechanisms with a similar view. The minor misconceptions in the Friedman's theory were corrected by Lucas by establishing a perfect balance between the "long-run" and the "short-run" non-neutrality essential for money based business cycles. The basis of both their constructs is that money is "exogenous†. They simply mean the central authority handling it can easily determine the constant supply of money. We all know the institution of banking is the above mentioned authority in the modern economy. By analysing the banking sector further, with the Lucas's theory, we will be able to determine whether the modern day money-creating systems lean towards neutrality or non-neutrality of money. Both the scholars did not consider the relatio n of bank assets and money as well as the borrower’s use of these assets. The banking sectors operate actively by investing on assets and lending the profits earned to others. We all know how influential the banking sector innovations can be on the core business management strategies. The best example is the 1985 game of mergers and acquisitions. Schumpeter said, innovation is the base of market power which will provide great temporary powerful positions, but this monopoly power will erode soon. It is true. We see the rise and fall of several banks, boosting the economy of a region considerably and disappearing like a bubble in a short time. The reason for this is, several banks spring up following one successful model, without any proper goal. They are just â€Å"lured imitators† according to Schumpeter and they are the main factors causing the short term monopoly in the market. Certain scholars like Hicks argue these quick profits created by the short term monopolies are quite important to keep the market active, inspired and running. Schumpeter’s innovation concept doesn’t fit the banking sector alone. In fact, they fit all technological and developing sectors. Innovations in finance will increase investments on the other sub sectors, creating a more technically sophisticated world. The role of speculators or middle men who act as a bridge between the financial sectors and the industries requiring investment also plays an important role in determining the actions of the financial institutions. Keynes’s words stating speculators are not mere bubbles, but they are capable of making a whole institution become bubble in the speculation whirlpool is worth consideration. According to Schumpeter strong financial institutions are the base of a countries economic growth, as it is innovative and kindles growth. But, Lucas, Levine and many other authors just considered the role of such organizations like banking have been â€Å"badl y over-stressed† in relations to economical growth of a country. There are some key questions to answer 1. How do the financial institutions emerge and why? 2. Under what circumstances do the financial institutions develop rapidly? 3. Are they really necessary and do they actually affect the money flow of a region or country? Any innovative organization wants more money to grow. They are the drivers behind these financial instit

Digital Radiography Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Digital Radiography - Research Paper Example hich relies on a digital media to capture and present the pictures it takes, rather than the more classic use of photographic film† (McGuigan, n.d.). There is not much difference between the examination styles of digital radiography and screen-film radiography from the patient’s perspective. The presence of a digital receptor and a computer system makes digital radiography different to screen-film radiography. Some of the main components of the digital radiography system include a digital image receptor, a digital image management and processing system, a display device, and data storage device. There are a number of advantages of digital radiography over screen-film radiography. Some of the key advantages of using digital radiography system include improved contrast, immediate observation of images, facility of magnifying the images, facility to transfer the images to other computer systems, real time interpretation of the images, better abnormality detection ability, reduced image processing time, and facility of storing images using computer technology. â€Å"Pulling up specific stored radiographic images from a comput er database is easy because of the highly organized nature of computer file storage† (Christensen, 2004). One of the key advantages of digital radiography is that of its efficacy in contemporary screening practices. A faster and more accurate examination is possible through digital method of radiography, which not only results in the reduction of the test duration but also provides comfort to the patients due to reduced examination time. Denise and Farleigh (2005) states, â€Å"One of the principal advantages of any digital imaging system is the separation of image acquisition, process and display, allowing optimization of each of these steps†. Speed is one of the major advantages of digital radiography system. The radiologists can produce the images very quickly using digital technology as compared to screen-film radiography. Digital

Speech class Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Speech class - Essay Example Therefore within the learner will develop these skills and will be effective in generating ideas, organizing these ideas after research topics and enhance the oral presentation skills. Within the preparation stage of every speech, the student learns how to conduct an effective research for the topic identified. The effectiveness of carrying out a research will rest on various factors such as the clarity of the theme or thesis statement which the presenter must be in a position to identify (Anon 7). Moreover, with other tools of conducting a research, the student learns how to have the research organized properly and efficiently in order to realize substantial information. From the successful research, information to be presented is gathered. It is followed by the organization of the research findings logically. This assists the presenter in categorically following the basic order in which the points are to be presented to avoid confusion, both to the audience as well as to the presen ter in person. Well organized points assist the presenter to be effective as it helps to build on the confidence and poise in presentation. Logical organization of ideas also involves the appropriate adoption of parts of speech while doing the presentation. It also entails clearly presenting an outline for the topic of presentation and carrying out rehearsals in presentation to ascertain the logical flow of the speech. Every speech has got the audience it is directed to and unless the speech is effectively delivered to the audience, then the purpose for the speech may not be met. In this regard, the speech class prepares the students on effective mechanisms to interact with the audience through overcoming nervousness as well as using proper body language (Anon 5-6). The eye contact with the audience ascertains confidence in the presentation and thus boosts the effectiveness of the speech. On the other hand, engaging active audience through periodical questioning, demonstrations, ton e variation, gestures and use of most relevant examples also contribute greatly to the effectiveness of a speech. Public speaking and speech presentation is an art and thus the effectiveness and competence in the same would be determined by the frequency of doing it as well as the practice done. There are various methods through which students master the art of speech delivery after class. The speech class advocates for different ways through which a learner can constantly keep improving of the speech methods learnt in class. Among other methods advocated is through regular reading of newspapers or other sources of information in order to develop effectiveness in collecting data from print sources and analyzing it. Moreover, through wide reading, the student is in a position to widen his/her scope of understanding the diverse topics. Other method is through assessing vocal pace, and tone through mimicry and repetition from Radio as well as television. This helps the student to maste r the art of speaking through recorded speeches and through this, one is able to develop competence in speaking and personal confidence as observed from program hosts. On the other hand, the student’s personal conditioning of students to have daily or regular

Slave Culture Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Slave Culture - Assignment Example h of slavery, as Couvares and Saxton state, â€Å"had plunged him deeply into social history, that is, into the realm of group experience and collective fate that seemed very far away from the world of intellectuals and political leaders that had once so occupied him† (16). Morgan found no conflict between the ideas of liberal democracy as espoused by America’s founding fathers and the country’s dependence upon slavery. Instead, he believed that slavery minimized class conflict, thus making the experiment of social democracy easier to accomplish in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. Unlike other historians of his era, Morgan believed that racism had little to do with the origins of slavery. Rather, he felt that its existence had more to do with â€Å"elite English attitudes towards manual labor, a short supply of indentured servants, and an elite fear of their unruliness† (111). In other words, slavery was used by the English colonists of the U.S. to control the lower classes. For Morgan, slavery was more of a class issue than a race issue. Black slavery developed out of a response to a serious labor shortage in the colonies, not due to violent feelings towards Africans. Morgan pointed to the English treatment of Native Americans earlier and stated that they were not enslaved as Africans were because their attempts to exploit Native Americans failed. Consensus about other beliefs, Morgan held, had more to do with the origins and development of slavery in

Corporate governance and ownership reforms in Japan Essay

Corporate governance and ownership reforms in Japan - Essay Example The paper will review recent shareholder activism, board structure, the latest corporate scandal, and reforms in the regulative environment of Japanese corporate governance as well as judicial system reformation conducted in the past few years. The paper will also present an analysis of data collected from previous research on the effects of foreign investment in Japanese firms and the introduction and assimilation of U.S. boardroom structures to Japanese corporations. The paper will further examine the attitudes of Japanese managers, legal practitioners, and acceptance and resistance to traditional governance methods vis-a-vis the new U.S.-style forms of governance and ownership structures. Also, the paper will delve into the conflicts and tensions created by the adoption of U.S.-style shareholder activism or board structures in the corporate world among the Japanese business legal practices, and provide analysis of some of the factors involved in such frictions. Introduction The li nkage between corporate ownership and governance has been studied for many decades from various angles. While this area of scholarship had largely emphasized the widely-held type of ownership2 and agency problems that arose out of it,3 corporate ownership and governance issues continue to differ worldwide even after economies or business practices have largely converged.4 As corporate activity spread across the world, scholarship has gradually started to focus on institutional and functional differences.5 Broadly speaking, the analysis of this divergence has been conducted through how corporate governance converted and persisted. While convergence optimists claim dominance toward the U.S.-type shareholder-centered model,6 the ownership structure and unique characteristics of corporate ownership and governance still remain significant. The persistence of this divergence is analyzed through the theory of complementarity in each corporate governance system.7 It is true that the global corporate governance system certainly seems to be unified both functionally and formally, despite persisting differences.8 However, as seen in the example of Japan in this paper, corporate ownership and governance are shaped by historical path-dependence, and the social norms of each country still plays an important role in corporate governance. The reformation of corporate ownership and governance in Japan after the collapse of so-called bubble economy in 1990 is a prime example of corporate governance convergence and persistence. Corporate ownership in Japan had been characterized by reciprocal cross-shareholdings among corporation and banks. Also, corporate governance in Japan has a unique character where the main bank and employee interests play a central role with insider-oriented boards. As we will see in the following chapter, this structure experienced significant change after the 1990s through dissolving cross-ownership and adopting some shareholder-oriented, Anglo-American rules of governance. While these reformations can be considered as a corporate conversion caused by globalization, many Japanese corporations still retain unique governance characteristics and adopt U.S-style rules and practices, causing conflict and tension among Japanese businesses and legal practitioners. This paper attempts to address the issue derived from corporate conversion and persistence that occurred very recently in Japan. I: Dissolution of Cross

How come immune system does not fight cancer Research Paper

How come immune system does not fight cancer - Research Paper Example cancers arising from the connective tissue are known as sarcomas. They originate from the mesenchymal cells that are present outside the bone marrow. examples of this type of cancer are osteosarcoma, liposarcoma, fibrosarcoma and neurosarcoma. Lymphomas and leukemias arise from hematopoietic cells. Germ cell tumors are those which arise from pluripotent cells froms ovaries or testicles. Classical examples of these cancers are dysgerminoma and seminoma. Blastomas are those that are derived from immature cells or embryonic cells. Hence they are more common in children. Examples of these are neutoblastoma and retinoblastoma (Yarbro, 2011). Pathogenesis of cancer Cancer mainly occurs due to failure of regulation of growth of tissues. This occurs due to alteration of the genes which are involved in the growth and differentiation of cells. There are two categories of genes that can get affected during the process of cancer development. They are oncogenes and tumour supressor genes. Oncogen es cause promotion of cell growth and reproduction. Tumor supressor genes cause inhibition of cell division. Hence triggering of oncogenes and supression of tumor supressor genes contributes to cancer (Yarbro, 2011). Causes of cancer There are several causes for cancer and they depend on the site of origin of cancer. For example, lung cancer is caused because of exposure to tobacco, asbestos and certain pollutants. Skin cancer is caused by exposure to sunlight or due to chronic skin ulcer. In some cancers, the causative agent can be infection like cervical cancer which is caused by human papilloma virus. Human T-cell Leukemia Virus-I, a human retro virus is known to cause adult T-cell leukemia. Leukemia, which is a type of blood cancer is caused by chemicals like Benzene and other aromatic hydrocarbons, some insecticides, hexachlorcyclohexane, phenyl butazone (Shafer, 162), alkylating agents, and a few chem-therapeutic drugs. Certain environmental factors also can lead to cancer. St udies have shown that ionizing radiation causes leukemia in experimental animals. There has been increased incidence of leukemia in the survivors of Japanese bomb explosions and those exposed to occupational radiation. Also, those receiving radiation therapies for various causes including spondylitis may be at increased risk for leukemia. Chromosomal translocations involving the Nucleophosmin gene occur frequently in myeloid and lymphoid cancers. This gene is a multifunctional phosphoprotein to which both tumor-suppressor and oncogenic functions have been attributed. In some cancers, genetic factors play an important role like in breast cancer and leukemias. There are some families with excessive incidence of leukemias. There is high concordance among identical twins if acute leukemia occurs in the first year of life. Also, the incidence of leukemia is high in various congenital genetic disorders like Down's syndrome, Bloom's Syndrome, Klinefelter's syndrome, etc. In chronic granulo cytic leukemia, an abnormality in the chromosome 21 has been detected. This abnormal chromosome is called Philadelphia chromosome (Ph-1) and is characterized by the absence of a part of one of its long arms. Certain pre-existing diseases can lead to cancers. Fanconi anemia is a risk factor for developing acute myelogenous leukemia. Those with myeloblastic syndrome also are at risk for acute myelogenous leukemia. Colonic polyps can lead to colon cancer. Other contributing factors for cancer are

Strategic Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Strategic Business - Essay Example Furthermore, while the mission statement of Microsoft formally articulates organizational purpose, it is the organization’s culture that gives life to the organization and helps make the realization of its mission possible. The concept of Microsoft’s of organizational culture has been the focus of much attention with analyst associating it with superior corporate performance, increased productivity, improved morale and high rates of return on investment. The organizational culture is the collectively accepted meaning that manifests itself in the formal and informal rules of an organization or a sub-group. The culture embodies the collective symbols, myths, visions and heroes of the organization are past and present (Ouchi, 1981). Culture basically involves what to wear, how to address staffs and what is rewarded and punished. It is often not written. When individuals join an organization, in addition to learning about its formal aspects, they spend much of their time be ing socialized into the less formal aspects of organizational life which is the culture. As Microsoft developed their approach in analyzing their organization, it became apparent to them and their people, that they have different personalities and work in different rhythms. People who feel professional jealousy want to be recognized by the leader of the organization. As we have said earlier, rewards or punishment is a motivation. Some people when not being rewarded feel that they are less important in the organization and eventually become unsatisfied with their job and some simply want higher position in the organization. Communication with members of the organization is and good relationship towards each other important in order for the organization to achieve their goal which can be hindered by professional jealousy. On the other hand, people feel job dissatisfaction because they want more challenging jobs. They feel they are more capable of other job than what they are

Disability and Able-bodied People Essay Example for Free

Disability and Able-bodied People Essay What is a normal person? Is it a man playing basketball with his friends in a park? Is it a woman riding horses through a grassy field? Or is it the double amputee that wears expensive sunglasses on a summer day? These images have all been depicted in the media, but the latter is not shown as frequently. If the media features disabled persons more often and in a better light, it will become the norm, therefore evoking unity among all Americans. As a society, we do not truly embrace people who are different than us. We are only tolerant of them because we are required to be. Television, print, and commercial advertisements are the only representation that the majority of Americans receive of the world around them. To combat prejudice and division between disabled and able-bodied people, there has to be an unbiased, well-rounded view of each in the media. Imagine if you lived in a world where you only saw ads with people who suffered from degenerative diseases, paraplegia, genetic disorders, etc. Would you begin to question whether you were normal or not? During the spring of my senior year in high school, I shadowed an occupational therapist who worked with autistic children. There were great lessons to be learned this semester, many of which I discovered from observing the children themselves. I began to sympathize with them and put myself into their shoes. I realized that I was in no better shape than they were, and we were not actually that different. In my free time, I would search tirelessly for ads which brought autism and disability into the forefront in a way that showed that they live their lives just as I did. Very seldomly would I come across one, and when I did, it was not from a major retailer. Disability rights organizations do a great job of raising awareness as advocates for the disabled, but I challenge the rest of the media to do the same. By making the lives of the disabled more visible in the media, everyday Americans will have the ability to see the handicapped in the same way I saw them during my internship. The able-bodied will see an array of people different from them just by putting those suffering from various disabilities on television. As a result, bringing able-bodied and disabled persons one step closer together. Additionally, the manner in which the disabled are depicted in the media is equally important. Becoming acclimated to seeing handicapped people in roles that we normally do not encounter will further show that we can all live together in unison. Switching the disabled person from door greeter to cashier in Walmart commercials is one example of this. Seeing a disabled person compete in the International Olympic games and not just a participant in the Special Olympics is also another example. Instead of diminishing the abilities of the handicapped, we can portray them in areas where they are apart of and grow with society. Are disabled and able-bodied people gelled together living in harmony or merely separate groups put together by force? Based on my experience, it is the latter, but it does not have to be. The media has played a major role in the way individuals are viewed throughout history. Once we change our outlook and perceptions on others, we change the way we live our daily lives. At that point we will begin to question who defines what is â€Å"normal† and what is not.

Vector And Raster Data In Gis Computer Science Essay

Vector And Raster Data In Gis Computer Science Essay A Geographical Information System (GIS) is a method of spatially storing, analysing, manipulating, managing and displaying geographical data. GIS data represents real objects such as roads, rivers, urban areas, place names, railway, places of interest, town names etc. with digital data determining the mix. A geodatabase is a database that is in some way referenced to locations on earth. Traditionally, there are two broad methods used to store data in a GIS; raster images and vector. Ordnance Survey Ireland (OSI) data is supplied in both Vector and Raster format. In both cases the data is geo-referenced. VECTOR AND RASTER DATA Vector data is split into three types; polygon, line (or arc) and point data. Vector is a method for storing spatial data involving assigning coordinates for each entity; an X,Y, Z for a point, a pair of such points for a line and a series of such lines for a polygon. This method is very useful for modeling discrete physical features. Different geographical features are expressed by different types of geometry: Points A point is a zero-dimensional abstraction of an object represented by a single X, Y co-ordinate. It is normally used to represent a geographic feature too small to be displayed as a line or an area (e.g. location of a building on a small scale map or, for example, cities on a map of the world might be represented by points not polygons). No measurements are possible with point features. Figure 1- Vector representation Source: http://www.geom.unimelb.edu.au/gisweb/GISModule/GIST_Vector.html Lines or polylines A set of co-ordinates that represent the shape of geographic features that are too narrow to be displayed as an area, such as, county boundary lines or contours. At small scales geographic features may have no area, e.g. streams or streets and may be represented as linear features rather than as a polygon. Line features can measure distance. Polygons Polygons are used to represent areas. Such as lakes, park boundaries or land uses etc. Polygons convey the most amount of information of the file types and can measure perimeter and area. Rigaux et al. (2002:p.38) states, A point is represented by its pair of coordinates, whereas more complex linear and surfacic objects are represented by structures (lists, sets, arrays) on the point representation. These geometries can be linked to a row in a database that describes their attributes. For example, a database that describes lakes may contain a lakes depth, water quality, pollution level. Different geometries can also be compared and the GIS could be used, for example, to identify all wells (point geometry) that are within one kilometre of a lake (polygon geometry) that has a high level of pollution. Vector data can be displayed at any scale and individual layers (e.g. roads, buildings, etc) can be displayed or omitted (see Appendix A). Raster Ellis states that raster is a method for the storage, processing and display of spatial data. There are three types of raster datasets; thematic data, spectral data and pictures. Raster data consists of rows and columns of cells, with each cell storing a single value. Raster data can be images containing individual dots with colour values, called cells (or pixels), arranged in a rectangular evenly spaced array. Each cell must be rectangular in shape, but not necessarily square (Ellis 2001). Each cell within this matrix contains location co-ordinates as well as an attribute value. The spatial location of each cell is implicitly contained within the ordering of the matrix, unlike a vector structure which stores topology explicitly. Areas containing the same attribute value are recognised as such, however, raster structures cannot identify the boundaries of areas such as polygons. Raster data is an abstraction of the real world where spatial data is expressed as a matrix of cells or pixels with spatial position implicit in the ordering of the pixels. With the raster data model, spatial data is not continuous but divided into discrete units. Ellis states that this makes raster data particularly suitable for certain types of spatial operation, for example overlays or area calculations. Raster structures may lead to increased storage in certain situations, since they store each cell in the matrix regardless of whether it is a feature or simply empty space. Additional values recorded for each cell may be a discrete value, such as land use, a continuous value, such as temperature, or a null value if no data is available. While a raster cell stores a single value, it can be extended by using raster bands to represent RGB (red, green, blue) colours, colour maps (a mapping between a thematic code and RGB value), or an extended attribute table with one row for each unique cell value. The resolution of the raster data set is its cell width in ground units. Anyone who is familiar with digital photography will recognize the Raster graphics pixel as the smallest individual grid unit building block of an image, usually not readily identified as an artifact shape until an image is produced on a very large scale (see Appendix B). A combination of the pixels making up an image colour formation scheme will compose details of an image, as is distinct from the commonly used points, lines, and polygon area location symbols of vector graphics. Aerial photographs and satellite images are examples of raster images used in mapping. Figure 2 Aerial Photo Digitally scanned and ortho-rectified raster colour photography. The ortho-rectification process removes distortions caused by camera tilt and topographical features to produce a scale accurate image. Source: OSI Raster data is stored in various formats; from a standard file-based structure of TIF, JPEG, etc. to binary large object data stored directly in a relational database management system. Raster v Vector There are some important advantages and disadvantages to using a raster or vector data model to represent reality: Vector graphics are usually more aesthetically pleasing. Raster data will appear as an image that may have a blocky appearance for object boundaries (depending on the resolution of the raster file). Vector data is simpler to update and maintain, whereas a raster image will have to be completely reproduced (e.g. a new road is added). Vector data allows much more analysis capability, especially for networks such as roads, rail, telecommunications etc. Distances and areas can be calculated automatically. With raster data it is difficult to adequately represent linear features depending on the cell resolution. Therefore, network linkages are difficult to establish. Vector files require less disk storage space than raster data. Raster data allows easy implementation of overlay operations, which are more difficult with vector data. Raster data structure allows simple spatial analysis procedures An outline of the application of vector and raster data by OSI in Ireland is included in Appendix C. Non-spatial data Relating the spatial component along with the non-spatial attributes of the existing data e.g. census figures (see Appendix D) enhances the users understanding and gives new insights into the patterns and relationships in the data that otherwise would not be found. Non-spatial data can be stored along with the spatial data represented by the coordinates of vector geometry or the position of a raster cell. In vector data, the additional data contains attributes of the feature. In raster data the cell value can store attribute information, but it can also be used as an identifier that can relate to records in another table. Software is currently being developed to support the solutions to spatial problems being integrated with solutions to non-spatial problems. This will result in non experts using GIS to integrate spatial and non spatial criteria to view solutions to complex problems and to assist in decision-making. Data capture The processes of data collection are also variously referred to as data capture, data automation, data conversion, data transfer, data translation, and digitizing. The two main types of data capture are: Primary data sources e.g. those collected in digital format specifically for use in a GIS project. Secondary sources, digital and analog datasets that were collected for a different purpose and need to be converted into a suitable digital format for use in a GIS project. For vector data capture the two main branches are ground surveying and GPS. Survey data can be directly entered into a GIS from digital data collection systems on survey instruments. Positions from a Global Navigation Satellite System like Global Positioning System (GPS), another survey tool, can also be directly entered into a GIS. New technologies allow creating maps as well as analysis directly in the field and as a result projects are more efficient and mapping is more accurate. Remotely sensed data also plays an important role in data collection and consists of sensors (e.g. cameras, digital scanners) attached to a platform which usually consist of aircraft and satellites. The majority of digital data currently comes from photo interpretation of aerial photographs. Workstations are used to digitize features directly from stereo pairs of digital photographs. These systems allow data to be captured in two and three dimensions, with elevations measured directly from a stereo pair using principles of photogrammetry. Photographs are collected by analog or optical cameras before being entered into a soft copy system, but as high quality digital cameras become cheaper this step will be eliminated. Satellite remote sensing provides another important source of spatial data. Remote sensing collects raster data that can be further processed to identify objects and classes of interest, such as forested areas. The disadvantages are that the resolution is often too course or sensors are restricted by cloud cover. Entering data into GIS usually requires editing, to remove errors, or further processing. For vector data it must be made topologically correct before it can be used for some advanced analysis. For example, in a road network, lines must connect with nodes at an intersection. For scanned maps, blemishes on the source map may need to be removed from the resulting raster. To ensure that the data is specific and reliable and that represents as closely as possible the spatial world we live in, it requires a quality insurance process to manage completeness, validity, logical consistency, physical consistency, referential integrity and positional accuracy of data. Raster-to-vector translation Vectorisation is the process of converting raster data into vector data. For example, a GIS may be used to convert a satellite image map to a vector structure by generating lines around all cells with the same classification, while determining the cell spatial relationships. One of the biggest problems with data obtained from external sources is that they can be encoded in many different formats. Many tools have been developed to move data between systems and to reuse data through open application programming interfaces. Therefore, a GIS must be able to convert geographic data from one structure to another. CONCLUSION When data is captured, the user should consider if the data should be captured with either a relative accuracy or absolute accuracy, as this could not only influence how information will be interpreted but also the cost of data capture. Vector data can be manipulated, layers can be turned on and off, data can be edited or deleted and additional data can be added in. Raster data is usually used as a background map. Raster is not as intelligent as Vector, Rigaux et al. (2002: p.39) states the structure is unfortunately not powerful enough to ensure the correctness of the representation. It is more useful as a display map for brochures, internet and power point presentations. Oosterom Van, P.J. (1993:p.vii) states the ever increasing availabilitiy of hardware such as digitizers, scanners workstations, graphic displays, printers and plotters for the input, processing, and output of geographic data only partly explains the growing interest in GISs. GIS allows us to view, understand, question, interpret, and visualise data in many ways that reveal relationships, patterns, and trends in the form of maps, globes, reports, and charts. GIS helps one answer questions and solve problems by looking at data in a way that is quickly understood and easily shared. Figure 3 GIS continues to evolve Source: Cummens 2010 ERSI Many forces are converging transforming how we work and improving efficiency and decision making (see Fig. 3 above). GIS Is becoming Mainstream Technology going beyond focused applications (Cummens 2010). GIS is helping citizens, business and Government by improving planning, management, communications and decision making. REFERENCES Cummens, Patricia (2010) Geographic Information Enabling a Smarter Government and Economy at the SCS Conference 2010. ESRI. Ellis, F. (2001) Introduction to GIS. Melbourne: University of Melbourne. Oosterom Van, P.J. (1993) Reactive Data Structures for Geographic Information Systems. New York: Oxford University Press. Rigaux, P., Scholl, M., Voisard, A (2002) Spatial Databases with Applications to GIS. San Fransisco: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers. http://www.osi.ie/en/academic/third-level-and-academic.aspx?article=4bf958eb-bf0b-4b28-a0d9-24586fadbaab Accessed 27/10/2010

Cultural Approaches to Communication

Cultural Approaches to Communication There are two traditional approaches to communication: transmission and ritual. The transmission approach views communication as conveying information over a distance for the purpose of control whereas the ritual approach views it as a representation of shared beliefs (Carey, n.d.). The traditional approaches are viewed as counter posed views of communication as none of the approaches contests what the other has to offer. However their insights into the process of communication have given rise to a new cultural approach to communication where communication is defined as a symbolic process whereby reality is produced, maintained, repaired, and transformed (Carey, 1988, pp. 23-24). This approach helps in understanding the existing communication processes in a disarmingly simplistic manner which makes it a wonderful experience. The objective of this essay is to analyze the cultural approach to communication with the help of a communication process, in this case, dance. This essay attemp ts to describe the process of cultural approach to communication with the help of dance as a communication process. Dance was chosen for the case study because it is a social and culturally significant process. Most people have an intuitive understanding of dance, even from different cultures, but what they lack is the ability to explain it to others in terms of a communication process. In his book Experimence and Nature, Dewey claimed that the of all things communication is the most wonderful (1939, p. 385). However, the everyday activities like conversations, giving and receiving instruction, sharing of information, entertaining others and getting entertained which are collectively termed as communication (Carey, 1988, p. 23) are routine activities. They happen so often and are so redundant that they are almost trivial and stop receiving our attention. There is nothing wonderful about these activities unless there is excessive masochism like a brilliant opera or a sensational news item. Such wonderfulness is rare which leads many communication scholars to term day-to-day communication as a common and mundane human experience. However, Carey does not subscribe to this view as he believes that Dewey must have meant something deeper when he termed communication as the most wonderful thing. According to Carey, communication appears mundane as people focus too much on trivial aspects that they forget the awesomeness in it. In his cultural approach to communication, Carey proposed to make communication appear problematic by inversing the relationship between realism and symbolic forms. Carey used the term symbolic process which creates reality to explain the wonderfulness in communication. By the term symbolic process, Carey meant a representation for community ideals in the material forms. The material forms or symbols can be artistic expressions like song, dance, plays, painting or journalism or scientific subjects such as anthropology or biology. The common belief among majority of people is reality is primary and symbolic representation is secondary. This means that there is an all encompassing reality which does not change, what changes is the peoles perception of reality which they represent through an artistic expression or scientific subject. For example, a painter who is pessimistic and sees everything which is wrong in the society is likely to produce darker paintings because it is his perception of reality. The cultural apporach however counters this belief by contesting that the symbols are primary. The symbolic process creates reality or as Kenneth Burke says reality is the signs of words. Carey argues that there is no single reality which is all encompass ing, rather reality is brought into existence by multiple symbolic processes going on in the universe at any point of time. For example, a news item (symbolic process) may lead people to act in a certain way which will create new reality. This reality is different for different people and thus reality is not a given. Dance is a non-verbal communication process which is social and culturally significant. Most people have an intuitive understanding of dance which helps them in evaluating dance from various cultures. There are several genres of dance from classical ballet to popular dance forms, from ritual dance to forms of sport such as figure skating. Different forms of dance are prevalent in different parts of the world such as classical ballet in Europe and ritual dance in Asia. Each culture has its own unique element in dancing, for example, association of musical instruments such as drums with dancing in most of Africa. A common understanding of the important elements of dance across cultures is thus important to understand the communication process. There are several attempts made by researchers to define dance in their cultural context. The Websters Third International Dictionary defines dance as rythmic movemement having as its aim the creation of visual designs by a series of poses through space in time and executed by body parts with a certain temperament and purpose (Kurath, 1960, pp. 234-235). According to Hanna, the concept of series of poses stands good in traditional dance categories such as classical ballet and ritual dance, however fail in modern dance forms such as Tharp in which the dancers bodies just keep spiralling and there is no distinct series of poses (1987). which stand good in their own cultures but fail in their understanding of cross-cultural elements. Kealiinohomoku (1972, p. 387) defines dance as an affective mode of expression which requires both time and space, employs motor behaviour in redundant patterns which are closely linked to the definitve features of musicality. According to Hanna, this definition is too limited as dance can occur without expression of emotions. Moreover, redundancy is not a feature of many dance forms and they often have a unique beginning and climax. The association of musicality with dance is very limited in scope as music and dance are two separate activities and need not happen together. In fact, several dance forms such as figure gymnastics take place without music. The present definitions stand good in their limited cultural context, but fail when applied to diverse cross-cultural dance forms. These definitions of dance are limited in their understanding of important elements of dance across cultures. They either incorporate unnecessary elements (such as transcending utility in Kuraths definition) or leave out important elements (such as culturally patterned sequence in Kealiinohomokus definition. Hanna attempts to bridge this gap in cross-cultural understanding of dance by establishing four criteria which must be fulfilled for an activity to be termed as dance i) purposeful, ii) intentionally rhythmical, iii) culturally patterned sequences of iv a) non verbal body movements, b) extra ordinary motor activites, c) motion having inherent and aesthetic value (Hanna, 1987, p. 19). To analyze dance from a cultural approach to communication, Careys notion of communication, that is, reality is produced, maintained, repaired and transformed has to be evaluated in the context of dance. While dance is influenced by a culture, it also creates a culture (producing reality) of its own. Like any other artists, dancers vie to be unique in their art by incorporating unique steps in their movements which are not necessarily influenced by their culture. A prime example will be Michael Jackson who influenced a new fashion and dance culture of his own throughout the world with his unique steps. Jacksons dance works have lasted in the memories of viewers in the forms of records beyond the actual dance situation. This has influenced thousands of youngsters to copy Jackson which has produced reality by creating a form of dance and even fashion which previously did not exist. Once the reality has been produced, the creators look to maintain the reality in the wake of new generations who might find it problematic by creating rigid rules and regulations. This maintenance of reality is visible in popular dance forms such as classical ballet. Brinson (1991) observes that the national dance culture in elitist Europe has often rigid formality and artificiality which forces the dancers to be within the realm of existing reality. The dance schools and theatres impose this rigidity on students of dance which can be viewed as an effort to maintain reality. It has been moderately successful in some cases. The traditional Indian dance forms such as Bharatnatyam and Kuchipudi are said to have retained their original form after even centuries of their origin despite many external modernizing pressures. In most cases, however, the new generation finds the existing dance forms too problematic and seek to incorporate newer changes (repairing and transforming the reality). A prime example can be Isadora Duncan who worked towards loosening the restrictions on classical ballet and formed a modern dance tradition known as Twyla Tharp. In most cases, however, the repaired reality is caused due to cultural (external) changes. In Duncans case, the rise of theatre dance and vaudeville created an appropriate condition for her to introduce changes to the classical and more rigid form of ballet. This contradicts with Careys notion that transformation in reality will happen due to symbolic process. In the case of Twyla Tharp and most other modern dance forms, the symbolic process has happened due to transformation in reality or cultural changes. This can mean two things. One of them is that Communication, as many scholars claimed, a most mundane experience after all. This means that most of the communication around us is a representation of the reality and not the other way round as Carey theorized. Only on rare activities with excessive masochism can it influence the reality. This was the case with Jackson and Duncan as both were wonderful exponents of their art that they were able to influence a whole new reality due to their lasting effect on peoples memories. A more plausible explanation can be that communication acts as representation of reality and for reality at the same time depending upon the point of view. Borrowing from Bakhtins concept of Intertextuality, an artists work results from an influence of multiple inner voices and yet is completely different from any other artist. Taking this concept into the dance forms, a dancer plays two roles in communication process. He is not only influenced by existing cultural phenomenon which determines his purpose and patterns, he also influences the actual culture through his unique rhythmical patterns which are independent of cultural influence. So a dancer is not only influenced by reality but also creates reality at the same time. The magnitude of his role depends upon the ability of the artist and external conditions prevailing. This explains the case of Jackson and Duncan satisfactorily. The purpose of this essay was to evaluate the effectiveness of Cultural approach to communication using dance as communication process. Dance can create new reality and maintain it. But the changes in reality (repair and transformation) often happen under the influence of external conditions. It was found that Careys notion of symbolic processes creating reality is one-dimensional. It assumes that symbolic processes are the origin and reality is a manifestation of it. However, it was revealed that symbolic processes play a dual role of influencer and influenced at the same time. This opens the question of origin of symbols and reality. It can form the scope of future studies on cultural approach to communication.

Greed Economics :: essays papers

Greed Economics Pokemon, Microsoft and the Economics of Greed Greed Economics: The uplifting or debilitating effect of the excessive desire of gain on the production, consumption and distribution of goods and services. Solid proof that â€Å"greed economics† lives and breathes was recently found in Newswek’s Novmber 8th issue in an article entitled â€Å"Puffy’s Crowded Orbit†. Sean (Puffy) Combs is founder and CEO of the extremely profitable Bad Boy entertainment. In the billion dollar a year rap music industry, he is the cognac in a world of beer. In 1997, his first album, (carried by the hit â€Å"Missing You†), sold an extraordinary 6 million copies! But Comb’s who is known as much for his business savvy as for his musical talent, ignored the rules of â€Å"greed management† and recklessy expanded into publications, clothing lines and restaurants. The sale of his recent album â€Å"Forever†, despite a red-hot reputation and a 32-city promotional tour, was â€Å"weaker than weak†. Newsweek reports that in the first week of November â€Å"the album was No.27 on the charts.† The same article places his last years earnings at $5 3 million; well off his tyical $100 million-a-year earnings of the mid 1990’s. Sorry â€Å"Puff† the law is real. Greed affects quality. Inner-city America finds it of some interest that this law does not favor the rich, the politically plugged in, or the â€Å"white† of this world. America’ richest man, Bill Gates received a stunning setback earlier this month when Judge Thomas Penfield Jackson ruled against the $500 billion software company Microsoft, declaring that it violated antitrust law and was in fact a monopoly. In a Newsweek article dated November 15th rntitled â€Å"Bill Takes it on the Chin†, Judge Jackson stated: â€Å"Microsoft has demonstrated that it will use its prodigious market power and immense profits to harm any firm that insists on pursuing initiates that could intensify competion†. Why couldn’t Billy be satisfied with say a $100 billion company? The penalty for ignoring the law of â€Å"reed rationing† may include having the software giant broken down into a bunch of little midgets. Are you listening William? Greed attracts powerful enemies. Well why not remove greed out of the equation altogether? Isn’t it ALL poison? Can’t we find a few cheerleaders for total greed celibacy? Not on your life. Why? Because economically speaking, greed isn’t all that bad. Take for example the hugely successful video game-toy phenomena Pokemon.